Diabetes

I. CONDITION

Diabetes mellitus is a desease in which the level of glucose in blood is high because the body can not release nor use proper amount of insulin. Base on PERKENI’s (Indonesian Endocrinology Society) diagnostic criteria in 2006, someone has diabetes when glucose level in blood reach more than 126 mg/dL after all night fasted (abstain from food) and more than 200 mg/dL in sudden test. The glucose level in the blood increase after meal and back to normal 2 hours later. Normal glucose level in the morning after all night fasted is 70-110 mg/dL. Glucose level usually less than 120-140 mg/dL in 2 hours after consuming food, drink something with sugar in it or other carbohydrate.

Normal glucose level in blood tends to increase slightly and progressively in the age of 50, especially for those who physically inactive. Increasing glucose level in blood after eat or drink will stimulates pancreas to produce insulin. Insulin controls increasing blood sugar level by allowing the glucose move from bloodstream into the cells. When inside the cells it converted to energy, which used immediately or stored as fat or glycogen until it is needed.

This condition can also cause by poor response of muscle, fat and liver cells to insulin. Glucose biled up in blood stream and urin, cause excessive urination, thirst and hunger, and difficulties in fat and protein metabolism. Diabetes Mellitus is different to Diabetes Insipidus which cause by lack of vasopressin hormon, the hormone than control production of urine.

Diabetes is most common in adults over 45 years of age; in people who are overweight or physically inactive; in individuals who have an immediate family member with diabetes; and in people of African, Hispanic, and Native American descent. The highest rate of diabetes in the world occurs in Native Americans. More women than men have been diagnosed with the disease.

II. PANCREAS

Pancreas in an organ which has an important role in diabetes. In this disease, pancreas doesn’t produce enough insulin to process glucose in blood stream. Scientists believe that immune system abnormality that arise from childhood is the cause of the disease. This known by diabetes type 1. In diabetes type 2, pancreas still produces insulin but can not harmonize insulin production to the need for processing glucose in the blood.

 

Pancreas is a glandular organ that secretes digestive enzyme into the intestine and produce insulin and glucagon to the bloodstream. These two hormones have very important role in metabolism of carbohydrate. Pancreas is attached to duodenum, the upper portion of small intestine. A large main duct, the duct of wirsung, collects pancreatic juice and empties into the duodenum. Enzymes active in the digestion of carbohydrates, fat, and protein continuously flow from the pancreas through these ducts. Their flow is controlled by the vagus nerve and by the Hormones secretin and pancreozymin which are produced in the intestinal mucosa. When food enters the duodenum, secretin and pancreozymin are released into the bloodstream by secretory cells of the duodenum. When these hormones reach the pancreas, the pancreatic cells are stimulated to produce and release large amounts of water, bicarbonate, and digestive enzymes, which then flow into the intestine.

Insulin and glucagon are produced by one type of cells named Beta cells, which spread all over the pancreas, in the part called islet of Langerhans. Langerhans is the name of a Germany doctor, Paul Langerhans. He is the one who in 1869 explain the function and existence of this part. In adult normal human pancreas, exist 1.000.000 islet of Langerhans.

There are five kind different cells in the islet of Langerhans, three of these cells (alpha, beta and delta) produce three important hormones. Alpha cells produces glucagon, Beta cells produces insulin and Delta cells produces somatostatin. The role of fourth and fifth kind of cells, D1 cells and PP cell still uncertain. The demage of beta cells as insulin producer will cause type 1 diabetes.

Islet of Langerhans secretes insulin hormone and glucagon to control glucose level in blood. Insulin stimulate cells to absorb the glucose from blood, transform it to energy and use or store it. Insulin is a simple protein in which two polypeptide chains of amino acids are joined by disulfide linkage. insulin help transfer glucose into cells so that they can oxidize the glucose to produce energy for the body. Insulin is secreted when the level of blood glucose level rises-as after a meal.

In adipose (fat) tissue, insulin facilitates the storage of glucose and its conversion to fatty acids. Insulin also slow the breakdown of fatty acids. In muscle it promotes the uptake of amino acids for making proteins. In the liver it helps convert glucose into glycogen and it decreases gluconeogenesis (the formation of glucose from noncarbohydrate source).

Glucagon has opposite effect of insulin. This pancreatic hormone stimulates liver to release it’s stored sugar (glycogen) to bloodstream. Glucagon will be released when glucose level in blood is to low or too much insulin produced and cause significant decrease in glucose level. This mechanism control blood glucose level in the body. Islet of Langerhans is also secrete, in very small amount, somastostatin which inhibits the production of insulin and glucagon. Pancreas also produce pancreatic polypeptide hormone whose role is uncertain.

Inadeqate production of insulin is responsible for diabetes mellitus condition. Severe diabetics require periodic injection of insulin, which is extracted from the pancreas of pigs, sheep, and oxen. Insulin was first isolated as a pancreatic extract in 1921 by the Canadian scientists Sir Frederick G. Banting and Charles H. Best. By the early 1980s certain strains of bacteria had been genetically modified to produce human insulin.

II. THE CAUSE AND TYPE OF DIABETES

Person with diabetes produce not enough insulin to maintain normal glucose level in bloodstream or produce enough insulin but not correctly responsed by the body cells. In diabetes melitus, body cells can not absorb glucose in bloodstream because of low insulin amount. Glucose stay in blood and can not be processed to energy nor glycogen. When the glucose-laden blood passes through the kidneys, the organs that remove blood impurities, the kidneys cannot absorb all of the excess glucose. This excess glucose spills into urine, accompanied by water and electrolytes-ions required by cells to regulate the electric charge and flow of water molecules across the cell membrane. This cause frequent urination to get rid the additional water drawn into the urine; excessive thirst to trigger replacement of lost water; and hunger to replace the glucose lost in urination. Additional symptoms may include blurred vision, dramatic weight loss, irritability, weakness and fatique, and nausea and vomiting.

Insulin helps control glucose level which needed for many chemical process in the body. In a healthy person, when food being digested (1), glucose blood level increase (2). Pancreas secretes insulin (3) to allow body cells to absorb glucose. Insulin also facilitates the transformed of glucose to glycogen and stored it in the liver(4)and in the muscle that will be burned when needed. Several hormones control secretion of insulin which lead to decreasing blood glucose level.(5) These hormones stimulate pancreas to stop insulin secretion.(6)

In person with diabetes mellitus, pancreas produces not enough insulin or the body cannot response and use insulin. After eat or drink (A), pancreas produce too little insulin (B), to provide energy, the body had to burn fat instead of glucose as source of energy. This process produce poisonous chemical compound named ketone which most of it spill into the urine (D) and the rest still remain in the bloodstream (E), cause the life-threatening condition named ketoacidocis. If the body can not use insulin properly unabsorbed glucose will remain in bloodstream and will impair several important chemical function of the body, included fend of infection and fight deseases.

1. DIABETES TIPE I

Diabetes is classified into two types. In Type 1 diabetes, formerly called insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) and juvenile-onset diabetes, the body does not produce insulin or produces it only in very small quantities. Symptoms usually appear suddenly, typically in individuals under 20 years of age. Most cases occur around puberty—around age 10 to 12 in girls and age 12 to 14 in boys.

Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease, that is, a condition in which the body’s disease-fighting immune system goes awry and attacks healthy tissues. In the case of Type 1 diabetes, the immune system mistakenly attacks and destroys insulin-producing cells, known as beta cells, in the pancreas. Scientists believe that a combination of genetic and environmental factors somehow triggers the immune system to destroy these cells. Scientists have so far identified 20 genes that play a role in Type 1 diabetes, although the exact function of these genes is still under investigation. Environmental factors, such as certain viruses, may also contribute to the development of the disease, particularly in people who already have a genetic predisposition for the disease. Type 1 diabetes also can result from surgical removal of the pancreas.

The body forms energy from several sources. Glucose from carbohydrate is the main resource that processed by the body become energy. If not available, the body take an alternative source of energy and process fat and protein in the muscle. Processing fat become energy will form an acidic substance called ketone. This substance billed up in blood stream and this will make blood become acidic. This condition is called Diabetic Ketoacidosis.

Early simptomps of diabetic ketoacidosis are excessive thirst and frequent urination, nause, vomitting, fatique dan stomachache (especially in children). Shortness and deeper breath usually occur because the body try to fix the acid level of the blood. Breath odor become aceton like smell. Without proper treatment, diabetic ketoacidosis can cause coma, sometimes for a few hours. Person with type 1 diabetes may develop ketoacidosis if pass one insulin injection, or experiencing stress cause by infection, accident or serious illness.

 

2. TYPE 2 DIABETES

In Type 2 diabetes, formerly known as non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) and adult-onset diabetes, the body’s delicate balance between insulin production and the ability of cells to use insulin goes awry. Symptoms characteristic of Type 2 diabetes include those found in Type 1 diabetes, as well as repeated infections or skin sores that heal slowly or not at all, generalized tiredness, and tingling or numbness in the hands or feet.

The onset of Type 2 diabetes usually occurs after the age of 45, although the incidence of the disease in younger people is growing rapidly. Because symptoms develop slowly, individuals with the disease may not immediately recognize that they are sick. A number of genes are involved in Type 2 diabetes. In addition, there is a strong relationship between obesity and Type 2 diabetes. About 80 percent of diabetics with this form of the disease are significantly overweight. The cause of diabetes are also:

• High level of corticosteroid,
• Pregnancy (diabetes gestasional), will curred after birth
• drugs, demage the pancreas or inhabit formation or efect of insulin

IV. COMPLICATION

If left untreated, diabetes mellitus may cause life-threatening complications. Type 1 diabetes can result in diabetic coma (a state of unconsciousness caused by extremely high levels of glucose in the blood) or death. In both Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes, complications may include blindness, kidney failure, and heart disease. Diabetes can cause tiny blood vessels to become blocked; when this occurs in blood vessels of the eye, it can result in retinopathy (the breakdown of the lining at the back of the eye), causing blindness. Diabetes mellitus is the leading cause of new cases of blindness in people aged 20 to 74.

In the kidneys, diabetes can lead to nephropathy (the inability of the kidney to properly filter toxins from the blood). About 40 percent of new cases of end-stage renal disease (kidney failure) are caused by diabetes mellitus. High level of glucose in blood cause the tendency of increasing fat substance in bloodstream. This condition will lead to arteriosclerosis; blockages of large blood vessels.  This can lead to many cardiovascular problems, including high blood pressure, heart attack, and stroke. Although these conditions also occur in nondiabetic individuals, people with diabetes are two to four times more likely to develop cardiovascular disorders.

Complex substance formed by glucose on the inner lining of blood vessels will make the walls of arteries become thicken and easy to leak. Thickening blood vessel will reduce blood flows especially for the blood which flows to skin and nerve. Bad blood circulation cause by thickening macro blood vessel can cause brain injuries, heart, and leg blood vessel (makroangiopati), whereas thickening in micro blood vessel will cause eye, kidney, nerve and skin injury and lead to difficulty to heal wound.

Diabetes mellitus, without proper treatment,  can cause long period process of complication. The most dangerous complication in diabetes is heart attack and stroke. High level  of glucose in bloodstream will slowly demage the blood vessels of the body.  Person with diabetes has to aware if experiencing heavy cough without any particular cause (influenza or asthma). That kind of cough can be cause by demage of the blood vessel around the heart or demage of the heart itself. Person with diabetes can experiencing heart attack without feeling any pain in the chest because nerves around the heart have been demaged.

In the kidneys, diabetes can lead to nephropathy (the inability of the kidney to properly filter toxin from the blood). About 40 percent of new cases of end-stage renal disease (kidney failure) are cause by diabetes. Blockage of the macro blood vessel in diabetics cal lead to many cardiovascular problems, including high blood pressure, heart attack, and stroke. Although these condition also occur in nondiabetic individuals, people with diabetes are two to four times more likely to develop cardiovascular disorders.

Diabetes mellitus may also cause loss of feeling, particularly in the lower legs. This numbness may prevent a person from feeling the pain or irritation of a break in the skin or of foot infection until after complication have developed, possibly necessitating amputa of the foot or leg. Burning pain, sensitivity to touch, and coldness of the foot, condition collectively known as neuropathy, can also occur. Other complication include higher-risk pregnancies in diabetic women and a greater occurrence of dental disease.

V. TREATMENT AND DIAGNOSE

Diabetes is detected by measuring the amount of glucose in the blood after an individual has fasted (abstained from food) for about eight hours. In some cases, physicians diagnose diabetes by administering an oral glucose tolerance test, which measures glucose levels before and after a specific amount of sugar has been ingested. Other tests have been developed to search specific antibody (protein in imune system which attacks outside substance) which only exist in person with diabetic. This test can detect type 1 diabetes in earlier stage and reduce the risk of complication.

Once diabetes is diagnosed, treatment consists of controlling the amount of glucose in the blood and preventing complications. Depending on the type of diabetes, this can be accomplished through regular physical exercise, a carefully controlled diet, and medication.

Individuals with Type 1 diabetes must receive insulin, often two to four times a day, to provide the body with the hormone it does not produce. Insulin cannot be taken orally, because it is destroyed in the digestive system. The amount of insulin given is different for each individual, depend on several factor like level individual physical activities, diet, and the presence of health disorders. Typically, individuals with Type 1 diabetes use a meter several times a day to measure the level of glucose in a drop of their blood obtained by pricking a fingertip. They can then adjust the dosage of insulin, physical exercise, or food intake to maintain the blood sugar at a normal level. People with Type 1 diabetes must carefully control their diets by distributing meals and snacks throughout the day so as not to overwhelm the ability of the insulin supply to help cells absorb glucose. They also need to eat foods that contain complex sugars, which break down slowly and cause a slower rise in blood sugar levels

Although most persons with Type 1 diabetes strive to lower the amount of glucose in their blood, levels that are too low can also cause health problems. For example, if a person with Type 1 diabetes takes too much insulin, it can produce low blood sugar levels. This may result in hypoglycemia.

Faint, shakiness, confusion, nause, vomiting and anxiety are symptoms of hipoglicemia. The first organ influenced by this condition is brain. Person with hipoglicemia can experiencing psychological disorder like change of personality or in some case seems like he/she was drunk. Hipoglicemia is cause by hyperinsulin, either because overdose or too much insulin produce by the body. In hyperinsulin, glucose level in blood decrease sharply and the body can not adjust this fall. This condition will cause suply of glucose to the body cells, and especially to the brain become inadequate. Severe hypoglycemia can cause permanent brain demage, coma and death.

Reactive hipoglicemia occurs in the persons in stress or depression. Immediately treatment need to be done when symptoms of hypoglycemia happens. Consume simple sugar like candy, honey, fruit juice or syrup can reduce the risk of hypoglycemia.

In order to control insulin levels, people with Type 1 diabetes must monitor their glucose levels several times a day. In 1983 a group of 1,441 Type 1 diabetics aged 13 to 39 began participating in the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial (DCCT), the largest scientific study of diabetes treatment ever undertaken. The DCCT studied the potential for reducing diabetes-related complications, such as nerve or kidney disease or eye disorders, by having patients closely monitor their blood sugar levels four to six times a day, maintaining the levels as close to normal as possible. The results of the study, reported in 1993, showed a 50 to 75 percent reduction of diabetic complications in people who aggressively monitored and controlled their glucose levels. Although the study was performed on people with Type 1 diabetes, researchers believe that close monitoring of blood sugar levels would also benefit people with Type 2 diabetes

Injected insulin, not exactly the same with natural insulin produce by the body. Thin situation, in several patients, can lead of the formation of antibody that destroy the replacement insulin. This antibody reduce effectiveness of injected insulin and the patient force to increase the dosis. Insulin injection can cause alergic reaction in the skin.

For persons with Type 2 diabetes, treatment begins with diet control, exercise, and weight reduction, although over time this treatment may not be adequate. People with Type 2 diabetes typically work with nutritionists to formulate a diet plan that regulates blood sugar levels so that they do not rise too swiftly after a meal. A recommended meal is usually low in fat (30 percent or less of total calories), provides moderate protein (10 to 20 percent of total calories), and contains a variety of carbohydrates, such as beans, vegetables, and grains. Regular exercise helps body cells absorb glucose—even ten minutes of exercise a day can be effective. Diet control and exercise may also play a role in weight reduction, which appears to partially reverse the body’s inability to use insulin.

Overweight and fat will cause insulin resistence. This fact explain why diet and excercise are the best way to manage type 2 diabetes. Decrease body weight and increase muscle mass will reduce the fat and help body to use insulin better. Recent research conclude that there is a close relationship between diabetes and the point where fat piled up in the body. If fat accumulate in the hip and part of stomache, the risk of diabetes is higher. Several ways to prevent fat to be piled up:

1. Healthy way of live, orderly and dicipline
2. Regular and measured excercise
3. Do not watch TV or work in front of computer too long
4. Reduce candy, chocholate or snack with high salt
5. Reduce junk food, with high level of calories, carbohydrate and fat
6. Consume a lot of fruit and vegetables

For some people with Type 2 diabetes, diet, exercise, and weight reduction alone may work initially, but eventually this regimen does not help control high blood sugar levels. In these cases, oral medication may be prescribed. If oral medications are ineffective, a person with Type 2 diabetes may need insulin doses or a combination of oral medication and insulin. About 50 percent of individuals with Type 2 diabetes require oral medications, 40 percent require insulin or a combination of insulin and oral medications, and 10 percent use diet and exercise alone.

VI. LONG TERM AND CONTINOUS OBSERVATION

Person with diabetes have to check the glucose blood level regularly, in the morning before breakfast, two hours after meal and night before sleep. Beside these regular tests, the person should do this test in a particular condition like hipoglicemia, pregnancy etc. This test is an effective means to decide the daily amount of insulin needed.

Haemoglobin is a part of red blood cells which transport oxygen. One type of haemoglobin is HbA. HbA1c is specific subtype of HbA. Glucose sticks to haemoglobin to form Glycosylated Haemoglobin which called A1c or HbA1c. The more glucose in the blood the more faster HbA1c formed in the blood. This situation cause high level of HbA1c1 in the bloodstream. HbA1c is the best single measurement to know the risk of tissue demage cause by high level of glucose in the bloodstream especially in nerve and minor blood vessel in eyes and kidney.

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LIVER

I. PENDAHULUAN

LIVER merupakan organ bagian dalam manusia yang paling besar ukurannya. Liver, yang merupakan bagian dari sistem pencernaan, mengerjakan lebih dari 500 fungsi yang berbeda dan semuanya penting untuk kehidupan manusia. Salah satu fungsi penting liver termasuk membantu tubuh untuk mencerna lemak, menyimpan cadangan makanan, menyaring racun dan kotoran dari darah, mensintesiskan berbagai macam protein, dan mengatur jumlah zat-zat kimia dalam aliran darah. Liver juga berperan dalam pengangkutan bilirubin, metabolisme dan pengangkutan beberapa macam obat-obatan; dan mengendalikan pengangkutan dan penyimpanan karbohidrat.

Keunikan liver dibandingkan dengan organ vital tubuh lainnya adalah liver dapat memperbarui, atau menumbuhkan kembali, sel-sel yang sudah rusak karena berbagai luka atau penyakit jangka pendek. Tetapi jika liver mengalami kerusakan secara berulang-ulang dalam jangka waktu yang lama, hal itu dapat menyebabkan kerusakan yang tidak dapat diperbaiki dan mengganggu fungsi liver secara permanen.

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NUTRISI TUBUH MANUSIA

Sumber: Ensiklopedia Encarta & Ensiklopedia Britannica

I. PENDAHULUAN

Nutrisi manusia, bidang ilmu yang mempelajari bagaimana makanan dapat mempengaruhi kesehatan dan kelangsungan hidup manusia. Manusia memerlukan makanan untuk tumbuh, bereproduksi, dan memelihara kesehatan yang baik. Tanpa makanan, tubuh kita tidak dapat menjaga suhunya, membangun atau memperbaiki jaringan, atau memelihara detak jantung. Memakan makanan yang benar dapat menghindarkan kita dari berbagai penyakit atau sembuh lebih cepat ketika penyakit menyerang. Faktor-faktor tersebut dan fungsi-fungsi penting lain dipenuhi dengan zat-at kimia di dalam makanan kita yang disebut nutrisi. Nutrisi dikategorikan sebagai karbohidrat, protein, lemak, vitamin-vitamin dan mineral.

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Diabetes Melitus

I. PENDAHULUAN

Diabetes mellitus adalah suatu penyakit dimana kadar glukosa (gula sederhana) di dalam darah tinggi karena tubuh tidak dapat melepaskan atau menggunakan insulin secara cukup. Menurut kriteria diagnostik PERKENI (Perkumpulan Endokrinologi Indonesia) 2006, seseorang dikatakan menderita diabetes jika memiliki kadar gula darah puasa >126 mg/dL dan pada tes sewaktu >200 mg/dL. Kadar gula darah sepanjang hari bervariasi dimana akan meningkat setelah makan dan kembali normal dalam waktu 2 jam. Kadar gula darah yang normal pada pagi hari setelah malam sebelumnya berpuasa adalah 70-110 mg/dL darah. Kadar gula darah biasanya kurang dari 120-140 mg/dL pada 2 jam setelah makan atau minum cairan yang mengandung gula maupun karbohidrat lainnya.

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GINJAL

1. Pendahuluan

Sedikit orang yang menyadari betapa mengagumkannya ginjal kita. Ginjal sesungguhnya merupakan pabrik kimia yang sangat rumit. Ginjal mampu menyaring seluruh suplai darah di tubuh kita 25 kali dalam satu hari. Ginjal membersihkan kotoran beracun yang dihasilkan tubuh sementara dalam waktu yang bersamaan ginjal juga menjaga keseimbangan kandungan garam, asam dan air dalam tubuh. Limbah kimia dan kelebihan air dikumpulkan oleh ginjal dan disalurkan ke kandung kemih dalam bentuk urin. Ginjal juga membantu kondisi lingkungan tubuh dan menghasilkan hormon penting untuk mengatur tekanan darah dan produksi sel darah merah. Walaupun kita jarang memperhatikan dan karena ginjal kita biasa bekerja dengan indahnya, kerja ginjal tidak begitu kita hargai sampai saatnya kerja ginjal tersebut gagal. Kegagalan kerja ginjal memicu tekanan darah tinggi, anemia, dan menumpuknya limbah dalam darah; yang dapat membahayakan jiwa.

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Kidney

1. Introduction

Few People realize how marveolus the kidneys are. They are actually the complex chemical factories. Capable of filtering the body entire blood supply twenty five times a day. The kidney cleaning the body’s toxic wastes while maintaining the proper balance of salt, acid and water. Chemical wastes and excess water are collected by the kidney and deliver to the bladder in the form of urine. The kidney also help the body’s environment deed and manufacture important hormone which regulate blood pressure and aid production of red blood cells. Although we seldom notice and because they usually work so beautifully, their work is not trully appreciated until they fail. The failure leads to high blood pressure, anemia and piled up of waste in the blood; potentially lifethreaning events

Kidney is one of the most important organ in human body. All vertebretes and some invertebretes have kidney. Human being, as well as all members of all vertebrete species, typically have two kidneys. Human’s kidneys are dark red in color and have a shape in which one side is convex, or rounded, and the other is concave, or indented. Human’s kidneys are about 10 to 13 cm long and about 5-7,5 cm wide. Adult human kidneys are about the size of a computer mouse. Kidneys are located beneath the diaphragm and behind the peritoneum. they lie against the rear wall of the abdomen, on either side of the spine. They are situated below the middle of the back, beneath the liver on the right and the spleen on the left.

The most important function of kidneys is the removal of poisonous wastes from the blood. Most of these wastes are nitrogen-containing compounds urea and uric acid. Kidneys ability to carry out it’s function in removal wastes, depend on the functional unit of the kidney called nephrons. Together with the bladder, two ureters, and the single urethra, the kidneys make up the body’s urinary system.

2. Structure

a. Renal Capsule

Each kidney is encased in a transparent, fibrous membrane called a renal capsule. This membrane protects the kidney againts trauma and infection. The capsule is composed of tough fibres, chiefly collagen and elastin (fibrous proteins), that helps to support the kidney mass and protect the vital tissue from injury. The capsule receives its blood supply ultimately from the interlobar arteries, small vessels that branch off from the main renal arteries. These vessels travel through the cortex of the kidney and terminate in the capsule. This membrane usually 2 to 3 milimeters thick.

The capsule surrounds the outer walls and enters into a hollow region of the kidney known as the sinus. The sinus contains the major ducts that transport urine and the arteries and veins that supply the tissue with nutriens and oxygen. The capsule connects to these structure within the sinus and lines sinus wall.
In a normal person, the capsule is light reddish-purple in colour, translucent, smooth, and glistening. It can usually be easily stripped fro the rest of the kidney’s tissue. A diseased kidney frequently sends fibrous connections from the main body of tissue to the capsule, which makes the capsule adhere more strongly. Difficulty in removing the capsule is noted at autosy as an indication that the kidney was deseased.

b. Renal Cortex

Renal cortex is the outermost layer of the kidney. It is situated between Renal Capsule and Medulla. Upper part of nephron which is Glomerulus and Henle’s loop are situated in this layer. Renal cortex is a strong tissue that protect the inner layer of the kidney. The renal cortex is the outer portion of the kidney between the renal capsule and the renal medulla. In the adult, it forms a continuous smooth outer zone with a number of projections (cortical columns) that extend down between the pyramids. It contains the renal corpuscles and the renal tubules except for parts of the loop of Henle which descend into the renal medulla. It also contains blood vessels and cortical collecting ducts. The renal cortex is the part of the kidney where ultrafiltration occurs.

c. Renal Medulla (Renal Pyramids)

Renal Medulla lies beneath the Cortex. It is an area that contains between 8 and 18 cone-shaped section known as pyramids, which are formed almost entirely of bundles of microscopic tubules. The tips of these pyramids point toward the centre of the kidney. These tubules transport urine from the cortical, or outer, part of the kidney, where urine is produced, to the calyces, or cup-chaped cavities in which urine collects before it passes through the ureter to the bladder. Space between the pyramids filled by cortex and forms structures called renal columns.

The tips of each pyramid, called the papilla, point toward to the calyx at centre of the kidney. The surface of the papilla has a sievelike appearance because of the many small openings from which urine droplets pass. Each opening represents a tubule called the duct of Bellini, into which collecting tubules within the pyramid converge. Muscles fibres lead from the calyx to the papilla. As the muscle fibres of the calyx contract, urine flows through the ducts of Bellini into the calyx. The urine then flows to the bladder by way of the renal pelvis and ureter.

d. Renal Pelvis

Renal Pelvis is extend in the center of each kidney as the tube through which urine flows from the kidney to the urinary bladder. The shape of renal pelvis is like a funnel that is curved to one side. Renal pelvis is almost completely enclosed in the deep indentation on the concave side of the kidney, the sinus. The large end of the pelvis has roughly cuplike extension, called calyces. The calyces’ are cavities in which urine collects before it flows on the urinary bladder.

Renal pelvis is lined with a moist mucous-membrane layer that is only a few cells thick; the membrane is attached to a thicker coating of smooth muscle fibres, which, in turn, is surrounded by a layer of connective tissue. The mucous membrane of the pelvis is somewhat folded so that there is some room for tissue expansion when urine distends the pelvis. The muscle fibres are arranged in a longitudinal and a circular layer. Contractions of the muscle layers occur in periodic waves known as peristaltic movement. This movement push urine from the pelvis into the ureter and bladder. The lining of the pelvis and of the ureter is impermeable to the normal substances found in urine; thus, the walls of these structures do not absorb fluids.

e. Renal Vein and Renal Artery

Two of the body’s crucial blood vessels, renal vein and renal artery. This two vessel are branch of from the abdominal aorta (the abdominal portion of the major artery leading from the heart) and enter into each kidney by attach to the concave part of the kidney.

At the inner concavity of each kidney there is an opening, known as the hilum, through which the renal artery passes. After passing through the hilum, the renal artery divides ordinarily into two large branches, and each branch divides into a number of smaller arteries, which bring blood to the nephrons, the functioning units of the kidney. Blood that has been processed by the nephrons ultimately reaches the renal vein, which carries it back to the inferior vena cava and to the right side of the heart.

The renal arteries deliver to the kidneys of a normal person at rest 1.2 litres of blood per minute, a volume equivalent to approximately one-quarter of the heart’s output. Thus, a volume of blood equal to all that found in the body of an adult human being is processed by the kidneys once every four to five minutes. Although some physical condition can inhibit blood flow, there are certain self-regulatory mechanisms inherent to the arteries of the kidney that allow some adaptation to stress.

When the total body blood pressure rises or drop, sensory receptors of the nervous system located in the smooth muscle wall of the arteries are affected by the pressure changes, and, to compensate for the blood pressure variations, the arteries either expand or contract to keep a constant volume of blood flow.

f. Nephron

The most important function of kidneys is to remove waste substances from the blood. Nephrons are the functional unit of the kidney in performing this task. Nephrons produce urine in the process of removing waste and excess substances from the blood. There are about 1.000.000 nephrons in each human kidney. These remarkable structure extend between the cortex and the medulla. Under magnification, nephrons look like tangles of tiny vessels or tubules, but each nephron actually has an orderly arrangement that makes possible filtration of wastes from the blood. Each nephron in the mammalian kidney is about 30-55 mm long. At one end of nephron is closed, expanded and folded into a double-walled cuplike structure. This structure, called the corpuscular capsule, or Bowman’s capsule. This capsule enclose glomerulus, the nephron’s primary structure in filtering function.

Structure of nephron explained in detail below:

1). Glomerulus

The glomerulus is the main filter of the nephron and is located within the Bowman's capsule. A glomerulus and its surrounding Bowman's capsule constitute a renal corpuscle, the basic filtration unit of the kidney. From the Bowman’s Capsule, extends a narrow vessel, called the proximal convoluted tubule. This tubule twists and turns until it drains into a collecting tubule that carries urine toward the renal pelvis.

Glomerulus is a network of extremely thin blood vessels called capillaries. The glomerulus resembles a twisted mass of tiny tubes through which the blood passes. The glomerulus is semipermeable, allowing water and soluble wastes to pass through and be excreted out of the Bowman's capsule as urine. The filtered blood passes out of the glomerulus into the Efferent arteriole to be returned through the medullary plexus to the intralobular vein.
A large volume of ultrafiltrate is produced by the glomerulus into the capsule. As this liquid traverses the proximal convoluted tubule, most of its water and salts are reabsorbed, some of the solutes completely and others partially.
A glomerulus is a capillary tuft surrounded by Bowman's capsule in nephrons. It receives its blood supply from an afferent arteriole of the renal circulation. Unlike most other capillary beds, the glomerulus drains into an efferent arteriole rather than a venule. The resistance of the arterioles results in high pressure in the glomerulus aiding the process of ultrafiltration where fluids and soluble materials in the blood are forced out of the capillaries and into Bowman's capsule. The rate at which blood is filtered through all of the glomeruli, and thus the measure of the overall renal function, is the glomerular filtration rate (GFR).

2) Henle’s Loop

Henle’s Loop is part of renal tubule which become extremely narrow that extending down away from Bowman’s capsule and then back up again form a U shape. Surrounding loop of Henle and the other parts of the renal tubule is a network of capillaries, which are formed from a small blood vessel that branches out from glomerulus.
The liquid entering the loop is the solution of salt, urea, and other substances passed along from glomerulus by proximal convoluted tubule. In this tubule, most of the dissolved components needed by the body; particularly glucose, amino acids, and sodium bicarbonate, is reabsorbed into the blood. The first segment of the loop, the descending limb, is permeable to water, and the liquid reaching the bend of the loop is much richer than the blood plasma in salt and urea.
As the liquid returns through the ascending limb, sodium chloride diffuses out of the tubule into the surrounding tissue, where its concentration is lower. In the third segment of the loop, the tubule wall can, if necessery, effect further removal of salt, even against the concentration gradient, in an active-transport process requiring the expenditure of energy. In a healty person the reabsorption of salt from the urine exactly maintains the bodily requirement: during periods of low salt intake, none is allowed to escape in the urine, but, in periods of high salt intake, the excess is excreted.

3) Renal Collecting Tubule

Also called Duct of Bellini, any of the long narrow tubes in the kidney that concentrate and transport urine from the nephrons, to larger ducts that connect with the renal calyces. The liquid from the loop of Henle get into the Distal Convoluted Tubule in which reabsorbtion of sodium continues throughout the whole distal tubule. This reabsorbtion extends to the early part of the Renal Collecting Tubule.
Each collecting tubule is about 20-22 milimetres long and 20-50 microns in diameter. The walls of the tubule are composed of cell with hairlike projection, flagellae, in the tube’s channel. Motions of the flagellae help to move secretion through the tubes. As the collecting tubes become wider in diameter, the cells increase in height so that the wall becomes thicker.
The function of the collecting tubes are transportation of urine and absorbtion of water. It is thought that the tissue of the kidney’s medulla, or inner substance, contains a high concentration of sodium. As the collecting tubule travel through the medulla, the concentration of sodium causes water to be extracted through the tubule walls into the medulla. The water diffuses out between the collecting wall cells until the concentration of sodium is equal in the tubes and outside them. Removal of water from the solution in the tubes serves to concentrate the urine content and conserve body water.

3. Functions

1. Urine Production And Blood Filtration

(1) Blood with waste enters the kidney through the renal artery. The artery divides into smaller and smaller blood vessels, called arterioles, eventually ending in the tiny capillaries of the glomerulus in each of the Nephrons.

(2) The Blood in kidney get into glomerulus through Affarent Arteriole. In glomerulus, blood travel through twist and turn capilaries. The capillary walls here are quite thin, and the blood pressure within the capillaries is high. The result is that water, along with any substances that may be dissolved in it—typically salts, glucose or sugar, amino acids, and the waste products urea and uric acid—are pushed out through the thin capillary walls, where they are collected in Bowman's capsule. Larger particles in the blood, such as red blood cells and protein molecules, are too bulky to pass through the capillary walls and they remain in the bloodstream. The blood, which is now filtered, leaves the glomerulus through Everent Arteriole, which branches into the meshlike network of blood vessels around the renal tubule. The blood then exits the kidney through the renal vein. Approximately 180 liters (about 50 gallons) of blood moves through the two kidneys every day.

(3) Urine production begins with the substances that the blood leaves behind during its passage through the kidney—the water, salts, and other substances collected from the glomerulus in Bowman’s capsule. This liquid, called glomerular filtrate, moves from Bowman’s capsule through Proximal Convulated Tubule. As the filtrate flows through the renal tubule, the network of blood vessels surrounding the tubule reabsorbs much of the water, salt, and virtually all of the nutrients, especially glucose and amino acids, that were removed in the glomerulus. This important process, called tubular reabsorption, enables the body to selectively keep the substances it needs while ridding itself of wastes. Eventually, about 99 percent of the water, salt, and other nutrients is reabsorbed. This process happens in Henle’s Loop.

(4) At the same time that the kidney reabsorbs valuable nutrients from the glomerular filtrate, it carries out an opposing task, called tubular secretion. In this process, unwanted substances from the capillaries surrounding the nephron are added to the glomerular filtrate. These substances include various charged particles called ions, including ammonium, hydrogen, and potassium ions. The secretion of potassium by the distal tubule is one of the most important events in the dikney as its control is fundamental to the maintance of overall potassium balance.

(5) Together, glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion produce urine, which flows into collecting ducts, which guide it into the microtubules of the pyramids. The urine is then stored in the renal cavity and eventually drained into the ureters, which are long, narrow tubes leading to the bladder. From the roughly 180 liters (about 50 gallons) of blood that the kidneys filter each day, about 1.5 liters (1.3 qt) of urine are produced.

2. Body’s Water Volume Regulator

Other kidney’s essential function is to regulate the amount of water contained in the blood. This process is influenced by antidiuretic hormone (ADH), also called vasopressin, which is produced in the hypothalamus (a part of the brain that regulates many internal function) and stored in the nearby pituitary gland. Receptors in the brain monitor the blood’s water concentration. When the amount of salt and other substance in the blood becomes to high, the pituitary gland release ADH into the bloodstream.

The blood contained ADH from the brain flow and get into the kidney. In the presence of ADH the renal tubules and colecting ducts become freely permeable to solute and water. It cause more water reabsorbed into the bloodstream. On the other hand in the absence of ADH the collecting ducts are impermeable to solute and water; thus, the fluid in the lumen, from which some solute has been remove, remains less concentrated than plasma; the urine is dilute.

3. Blood Pressure Regulator

Regulating blood pressure is linked to the kidneys' ability to excrete enough sodium chloride (salt) to maintain normal sodium balance, extracellular fluid volume and blood volume. Kidney disease is the most common cause of secondary hypertension (high blood pressure). Even minor disruptions in kidney function play a role in most (if not all) cases of high blood pressure and increased injury to the kidneys. This injury can eventually cause malignant hypertension, stroke or even death.

In normal people, when there's a higher intake of sodium chloride (salt), the body adjusts. It excretes more sodium without raising arterial pressure. However, many outside influences can reduce the kidneys' ability to excrete sodium. If the kidneys are less able to excrete salt with normal or higher salt intake, chronic increases in extracellular fluid volume and blood volume result. This leads to high blood pressure. When there is an increase in hormones and neurotransmitters that cause blood vessels to narrow, even small increases in blood volume are compounded. (This is due to the smaller area of blood vessel through which the blood is forced to flow.) Although the increases in arterial pressure lead the kidneys to excrete more sodium (which restores the sodium balance), higher pressure in the arteries may persist. This shows the important link between kidney disease and high blood pressure.

The hormone aldosterone, produced by the adrenal glands, interacts with the kidneys to regulate the blood’s sodium and potassium content. High amounts of aldosterone cause the nephrons to reabsorb more sodium ions, more water, and fewer potassium ions; low levels of aldosterone have the reverse effect. The kidney’s responses to aldosterone help keep the blood’s salt levels within the narrow range that is best for crucial physiological activities.
Aldosterone also helps regulate blood pressure. When blood pressure starts to fall, the kidney releases an enzyme (a specialized protein) called renin, which converts a blood protein into the hormone angiotensin. This hormone causes blood vessels to constrict, resulting in a rise in blood pressure. Angiotensin then induces the adrenal glands to release aldosterone, which promotes sodium and water to be reabsorbed, further increasing blood volume and blood pressure.

4. Body’s Acid Base Balance

The kidney also adjusts the body’s acid base balance to prevent such blood disorders as acidosis and alkalosis, both of which impair the functioning of the central nerveous system. If the blood is too acidic, meaning that there is an excess of hydrogen ions, the kidney moves these ions to the urine through the process of tubular secretion.

5. Production of Hormones

1) Erythropoietin

Several hormones are produced in the kidney. One of these, erythropoietin, influences the production of red blood cells in the bone marrow. When the kidney detects that the number of red blood cells in the body is declining, it secretes erythropoietin. This hormone travels in the bloodstream to the bone marrow, stimulating the production and release of more red cells.
Erythropoietin is a glycoprotein. It acts on the bone marrow to increase the production of red blood cells. Stimuli such as bleeding or moving to high altitudes (where oxygen is scarcer) trigger the release of EPO. People with failing kidneys can be kept alive by dialysis. But dialysis only cleanses the blood of wastes. Without a source of EPO, these patients suffer from anemia. Now, thanks to recombinant DNA technology, recombinant human EPO is available to treat these patients.
Because EPO increases the hematocrit, it enables more oxygen to flow to the skeletal muscles. Some cyclists (and distance runners) have used recombinant EPO to enhance their performance. Although recombinant EPO has exactly the same sequence of amino acids as the natural hormone, the sugars attached by the cells used in the pharmaceutical industry differ from those attached by the cells of the human kidney. This difference can be detected by a test of the athlete's urine.
Prolonged exposure to reduced oxygen levels (e.g., living at high altitude) leads to increased synthesis of EPO. In mice, and perhaps in humans, this effect is mediated by the skin. Mouse skin cells can detect low levels of oxygen ("hypoxia") and if this persists, blood flow to the kidneys diminishes leading to increased synthesis of EPO by them.
Recently it has been found that EPO is also synthesized in the brain when oxygen becomes scarce there (e.g., following a stroke), and helps protect neurons from damage. Perhaps recombinant human EPO will turn out to be useful for stroke victims as well.

2) Calcitriol

Calcitriol is 1,25[OH]2 Vitamin D3, the active form of vitamin D. It is derived from calciferol (vitamin D3) which is synthesized in skin exposed to the ultraviolet rays of the sun

precursors ("vitamin D") ingested in the diet. Calciferol in the blood is converted into the active vitamin in two steps:
i. calciferol is converted in the liver into 25[OH] vitamin D3
ii. this is carried to the kidneys (bound to a serum globulin) where it is converted into calcitriol. This final step is promoted by the parathyroid hormone (PTH).
Calcitriol acts on the cells of the intestine to promote the absorption of calcium from food. Calcitriol acts also in the bone to mobilize calcium from the bone to the blood Calcitriol enters cells and, if they contain receptors for it (intestine cells do), it binds to them. The calcitriol receptors are zinc-finger transcription factors. Insufficient calcitriol prevents normal deposition of calcium in bone.
In childhood, this produces the deformed bones characteristic of rickets. In adults, it produces weakened bones causing osteomalacia.The most common causes are inadequate amounts of the vitamin in the diet or insufficient exposure to the sun.However, some rare inherited cases turn out to be caused by inheriting two mutant genes for the kidney enzyme that converts 25[OH] vitamin D3 into calcitriol.Other cases of inherited rickets (also very rare) are caused by inheriting two defective genes for the calcitriol receptor. Mutations that change the amino acids in one or another of the zinc fingers interfere with binding to the DNA of the response element.

4. Kidney Desease

1. Pyelonephritis

infection and inflammation of the kidney tissue and the renal pelvis (the cavity formed by the expansion of the upper end of the ureter, the tube that conveys urine to the bladder). The infection is usually bacterial. The most common type of renal disorder, pyelonephritis may be chronic or acute.
Acute pyelonephritis generally affects one specific region of the kidney, leaving the rest of the kidney structure untouched. In many instances pyelonephritis develops without any apparent precipitating cause. Any obstruction to the flow of blood or urine, however, may make the kidneys more susceptible to infection, and fecal soiling of the urethral opening is thought to increase the incidence of the disease in infants (the urethra is the channel for urine from the bladder to the outside). Women may suffer injury of the urinary passages during intercourse or pregnancy, and catheterization (mechanical draining of urine) can cause infection.

2. Glomerulonephritis

Glomerulonephritis, another common kidney disease, is characterized by inflammation of some of the kidney's glomeruli. This condition may occur when the body’s immune system is impaired. Antibodies and other substances form large particles in the bloodstream that become trapped in the glomeruli. This causes inflammation and prevents the glomeruli from working properly. Symptoms may include blood in the urine, swelling of body tissues, and the presence of protein in the urine, as determined by laboratory tests. Glomerulonephritis often clears up without treatment. When treatment is necessary, it may include a special diet, immunosuppressant drugs, or plasmapheresis, a procedure that removes the portion of the blood that contains antibodies.

Glomerulonephritis is the disorder commonly known as nephritis, or Bright's disease. The primary impact of the disease is on the vessels of the glomerular tuft. The suffix “-itis” suggests an inflammatory lesion, and glomerulonephritis is indeed associated with infection, in the limited sense that it may begin soon after a streptococcal infection and may be aggravated in its later course by infections of various kinds. Nevertheless, there is convincing evidence that glomerulonephritis does not represent a direct attack on the kidney by an infective agent; it appears to be, rather, an immunologic disorder, in the sense of the formation of antibodies in response to the presence of a foreign protein (antigen) elsewhere in the body; these form antigen–antibody complexes that lodge in the glomerular tuft or, in a small number of cases, themselves become deposited on the capillary glomerular walls. In each case the antibody or the antigen–antibody complex reaches the kidney via the circulation, and the mechanism is usually referred to as circulating complex disease.

3. Kidney Stone

also called Renal Calculus, plural Renal Calculi, concretion of minerals and organic matter that forms in the kidneys. Such stones may become so large as to impair normal renal function. Urine contains many salts in solution and if the concentration of mineral salts becomes excessive, the excess salt precipitates as solid particles called stones. Kidney stones are classified as primary if they form without apparent cause, such as an infection or obstruction. They are classified as secondary if they develop after a renal infection or disorder.

Certain circumstances increase the likelihood of stone formation. Either a reduction in fluid volume or a surge in mineral concentration can be enough to upset the delicate balance between the liquid and its solutes. Once a stone starts developing, it generally continues to grow. A nucleus for precipitation of urinary salts can be a clump of bacteria, degenerated tissue, sloughed-off cells, or a tiny blood clot. Minerals start collecting around the foreign particle and encrusting it. As the stone increases in size, the surface area available for additional mineral deposition is continually increased.
Smaller kidney stones can pass out of the body on their own, although this can be painful. Larger stones may require surgery, or they may be broken into smaller pieces with sound waves in a procedure called ultrasonic lithotripsy.

4. Kidney Failure

also called Renal Failure, partial or complete loss of kidney function. Kidney failure is classified as acute (when the onset is sudden) or chronic.

Acute kidney failure results in reduced output of urine, abnormally high levels of nitrogenous substances, potassium, sulfates, and phosphates in the blood, and abnormally low blood levels of sodium, calcium, and carbon dioxide (see uremia). Ordinarily the affected person recovers in six weeks or less.

Causes of kidney failure include destruction of the tubules in the kidney by drugs or organic solvents such as carbon tetrachloride, acetone, and ethylene glycol; exposure to compounds of metals such as mercury, lead, and uranium; physical injuries or major surgery causing much loss of blood or an increase in blood pressure; severe burns; and incompatible blood transfusions. Renal failure can also result from diseases that destroy the cortex (outer substance) of the kidney; from severe bacterial infections of the kidney; from diabetes that causes destruction of the medulla (the inner substance) of the kidney; and from overabundance of calcium salts in the kidneys.

Blockage of the renal arteries, liver diseases, and obstruction of the urinary tract produce acute failure; on rare occasions, kidney failure can occur without apparent symptoms. Complications that arise from kidney failure include heart failure, pulmonary edema, and an overabundance of potassium in the body.
Chronic renal failure is usually the result of prolonged diseases of the kidney. In chronic failure the blood becomes more acidic than normal and there can be loss of calcium from the bones. Nerve degeneration can also occur.

5. How Keeping Healthy Kidney

Most people have been told that it is important to drink 8-10 glasses of good water a day. Urine should be 96% or better of water in order to flush all the sediment out of the kidneys. It is almost impossible to get good water today. Experts suggest that people only drink water purified by a reverse osmosis system. Even Reverse Osmosis (R.O.) water needs to be kept refrigerated. Many people are buying bottled water. When water is stagnant it breeds bacteria unless it is distilled or chemically treated. Chemicals used to purify the water are linked with kidney disease, high blood pressure, cancer, and more. Distilled water is unstable molecularly. The process of distilling encourages Hydrogens to share an oxygen molecule. Some natural healers say that before anyone has ANY SYMPTOMS of kidney problems they can have at LEAST 60% KIDNEY DAMAGE, so it's very important to strive to keep them healthy.

It is still called H2O or Water, but everything in nature tries to stabilize itself including distilled water. As the unstable water passes through the urinary system, especially the kidneys it will draw out oxygen which, with prolong use, can weaken the kidneys. I don't believe that anything not found in that state in nature be considered totally safe.

A high quality spring water, should be a good source as well. Water drawn from pure springs not refrigerated will breed bacteria no matter how sterile looking the bottle. Some people say "The top of the water cooler isn't refrigerated but as it comes out it passes a cooling system." What they are drinking then is cold bacteria. If you had piece of meat out for days or weeks could you make it safe by refrigerating it right before you eat it?

Many a public water system has been laced with fluoride to strengthen our teeth. This Fluoride can alter the brain function and can destroy your kidneys. You can buy a new set of teeth much easier than going through a kidney transplant.

Another important aspect in keeping healthy kidneys is to keep all of the other eliminating systems functioning properly. The 2.4 million nephrons inside the kidney filter the blood. If the bowel, liver, or the skin is not functioning properly the blood will be more toxic and will cause more acid than the kidneys are designed to handle. Many with gout will attest to this fact.
Probably what causes the most abuse to the kidneys are:

• COFFEE, TEA AND SODA. Some people think that it's the caffeine in these drinks that is hard on the kidneys and joints. Caffeine is not good for you, but it is the tannic acid that damages the kidneys. Another real offender is artificial colored sugar water. Carbonation is also very hard on the kidneys.
• DON'T DRINK COFFEE, TEA, SODA, AND ARTIFICIAL COLORED DRINKS. CUT OUT ALL MILK PRODUCTS AND LIMIT RED MEATS.
• Do drink good water, juices and herbal teas.
• Keep your cholesterol level below 5.5
• Maintain a healthy body mass index. Obesity poses a significant risk when it comes to kidney disease.
• Do 30 minutes of exercise daily, a moderate intensity walk is adequate for general well being.
• Do not smoke. Smokers have a much greater risk of kidney disease.
• Eat a healthy, well balanced diet with lots of fruits, vegetables, whole grains and lean meat. Reduce your consumption of fast food and high fat food.
• Keep your blood pressure below 130/90. High blood pressure (known as hypertension) can cause kidney disease.
• Take preventive measures against getting type 2 diabetes or if you have diabetes manage it well. Diabetes can cause kidney disease.
• Avoid taking unnecessary medications-drugs like lithium and cyclosporine in particular can lead to kidney failure.
• Drink at least two liters of fluid each day, preferably water. If you don't drink enough water to produce adequate urine it can lead to urinary tract infections which can cause kidney stones to develop.
• Consider having your kidney function tested regularly if you feel you are at risk of kidney disease. Kidney function can be reduced to 80-90% before any physical symptoms develop.
• To maintain a healthy liver and kidneys it is important to eat healthy and drink plenty of water daily.
• Fruits and vegetables is very helpful for remove the waste from the bloodstream. Eat wide range of fruits and vegetables. The easy way to remember to eat a wide range of fresh fruits and vegetables is to do the rainbow color of the variety in choosing something from all the different colors of fruits and vegetables.
• Eating a wide range of healthy foods will give you more of the nutritional intake of a better balanced diet. In addition consider expanding your horizon of new types of healthy food categories that are on your pyramid diet plan. The antioxidants in the Rainbow Colored choices to make so you can have some of every color in your regular diet with the intake of your fruits and vegetables might safe guard you against certain illnesses and diseases;such as cancer and will keep your immune system stronger especially during cold and flu season.
• Drink 2 liters of a day. Get can be filtered water, distilled or mineral. Just as long as it is free of chlorine and other chemicals that are in unfiltered tap water.
• Eat 5 servers of fruits and vegetables daily.
• The bulk of your food intake should consist of whole grain foods and legumes.
• The smaller portions should consist of (preferably) low fat diary products, fish once or twice a week in small portions (as to not get to much heavy metels or mercury in the diet), skinless poultry and lean meat and nuts.
• Count calories. Watch your calorie intake and keep it at or below the standard amount for your height and weight. Lower calories intake if you are obese.
• Obesity increases a persons risk for Liver Disease. In America there are 74% of the population 25 years and older are overweight. Having an excess of fat on the body effects the internal organs by making them harder to function properly.
• Alcohol increases the risk of Liver Disease, Hepatitis by 50% and Cirrhosis by 15 to 30%.
• Drugs play a major role in the damage to the liver and kidneys as well as the overall wellbeing of the individuals life.
• Regular exercise helps the organs by stretching them as you workout and thereby strengthening them. Exercise no less than 3 times a week Walking, running, jogging, swimming, hiking, aerobics and other forms of fitness training that will keep you in shape will benefit the internal organs as well as increase years to your life. Choose to exercise by fitness activities that you enjoy doing or are more out to do. If it is walking than walk with a friend(s). Join a Fitness Club, YMCA, or a sports activity. It is never to late to start playing baseball, soccer or jogging a jogging team. Stick to stuff you like to do and that will increase your success rate of maintaining an active regular fitness program.

 

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